Gagne's Nine Events of Instruction

Gagne's Nine Events of Instruction

These were based on the information processing model of the mental events that occur when adults are presented with various stimuli. Gagne created a nine-step process called the events of instruction, which correlate to and address the conditions of learning.

1. Gain attention-Stimuli activates receptors

In order for any learning to take place, you must first capture the attention of the student. A multimedia program that begins with an animated title screen sequence accompanied by sound effects or music startles the senses with auditory or visual stimuli. An even better way to capture students' attention is to start each lesson with a thought-provoking question or interesting fact. Curiosity motivates students to learn.

2. Inform learners of objectives- Creates level of expectation for learning

Early in each lesson students should encounter a list of learning objectives. This initiates the internal process of expectancy and helps motivate the learner to complete the lesson. These objectives should form the basis for assessment and possible certification as well. Typically, learning objectives are presented in the form of "Upon completing this lesson you will be able to. . . .".

3. Stimulate recall of prior learning- Retrieval and activation of short-term memory

Associating new information with prior knowledge can facilitate the learning process. It is easier for learners to encode and store information in long-term memory when there are links to personal experience and knowledge. A simple way to stimulate recall is to ask questions about previous experiences, an understanding of previous concepts, or a body of content.

4. Present the content- Selective perception of content

This event of instruction is where the new content is actually presented to the learner. Content should be chunked and organized meaningfully, and typically is explained and then demonstrated. To appeal to different learning modalities, a variety of media should be used if possible, including text, graphics, audio narration, and video.

5. Provide "learning guidance"- Semantic encoding for storage long-term memory

To help learners encode information for long-term storage, additional guidance should be provided along with the presentation of new content. Guidance strategies include the use of examples, non-examples, case studies, graphical representations, mnemonics, and analogies.

6. Elicit performance (practice)- Responds to questions to enhance encoding and verification

In this event of instruction, the learner is required to practice the new skill or behavior. Eliciting performance provides an opportunity for learners to confirm their correct understanding, and the repetition further increases the likelihood of retention.

7. Provide feedback- Reinforcement and assessment of correct performance

As learners practice new behavior it is important to provide specific and immediate feedback of their performance. Unlike questions in a post-test, exercises within tutorials should be used for comprehension and encoding purposes, not for formal scoring. Additional guidance and answers provided at this stage are called formative feedback.

8. Assess performance- Retrieval and reinforcement of content as final evaluation

Upon completing instructional modules, students should be given the opportunity to take (or be required to take) a post-test or final assessment. This assessment should be completed without the ability to receive additional coaching, feedback, or hints. Mastery of material, or certification, is typically granted after achieving a certain score or percent correct. A commonly accepted level of mastery is 80% to 90% correct.

9. Enhance retention and transfer to the job- Retrieval and generalization of learned skill to new situation

Determining whether or not the skills learned from a training program are ever applied back on the job often remains a mystery to training managers - and a source of consternation for senior executives. Effective training programs have a "performance" focus, incorporating design and media that facilitate retention and transfer to the job. The repetition of learned concepts is a tried and true means of aiding retention, although often disliked by students. (There was a reason for writing spelling words ten times as grade school student.) Creating electronic or online job-aids, references, templates, and wizards are other ways of aiding performance.

Applying Gagne's nine-step model to any training program is the single best way to ensure an effective learning program. A multimedia program that is filled with glitz or that provides unlimited access to Web-based documents is no substitute for sound instructional design. While those types of programs might entertain or be valuable as references, they will not maximize the effectiveness of information processing - and learning will not occur.

Reference: http://www.e-learningguru.com/articles/art3_3.htm

How you will apply the Development and Implementation phases in ADDIE for developing an e-learning package?

Development Phase

The development phase is where the developers create and assemble the content assets that were created in the design phase. If e-learning is involved, programmers work to develop and/or integrate technologies. Testers perform debugging procedures. The project is reviewed and revised according to any feedback given.

Reference: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ADDIE_Model#Development_Phase

Implementation Phase

During the implementation phase, a procedure for training the facilitators and the learners is developed. The facilitators' training should cover the course curriculum, learning outcomes, method of delivery, and testing procedures. Preparation of the learners include training them on new tools (software or hardware), student registration.
This is also the phase where the project manager ensures that the books, hands on equipment, tools, CD-ROMs and software are in place, and that the learning application or Web site is functional.
Points to take note during the Implementation phase:

· The course meets important organizational goals
· The course covers content that learners need to know
· The course reflects the learners existing capabilities


Reference: http://www.scribd.com/doc/11605511/The-ADDIE-Instructional-Design-Model

What is SCORM and AICC?

What is SCORM?

SCORM is a set of technical standards for e-learning software products. It stands for Sharable Content Object Reference.
Specifically, SCORM governs how online learning content and Learning Management Systems (LMSs) communicate with each other. SCORM does not speak to instructional design or any other pedagogical concern, it is purely a technical standard. SCORM tells programmers how to write their code so that it can “play well” with other e-learning software.

Reference: http://www.scorm.com/scorm-explained/

The Sharable Content Object Reference Model (SCORM) is a "reference model" - a set of guidelines on how to use other standards in a particular context. It consists of a collection of specifications adapted from multiple sources. These have been refined and integrated and provide a comprehensive suite of e-learning capabilities that enable interoperability, accessibility and reusability of Web-based learning content.
The SCORM consists of a suite of specifications including:
· Specifications relating to the run time environment - how the content interacts with the Learning Management System (LMS).
· Specifications for representing course structures or content aggregation - including the IMS Content Packaging specification.
· Specifications for creating metadata records for courses, content and raw media elements, based on the IEEE LOM.
· Specifications for separating sequencing and navigation rules and behaviours from content.

Reference: http://e-standards.flexiblelearning.net.au/background/scorm.htm

What is AICC?

The Aviation Industry Computer-Based Training Committee (AICC) is an international association of technology-based training professionals. The AICC develops guidelines for aviation industry in the development, delivery, and evaluation of CBT,WBT and related training technologies.

Reference: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AICC_(CBT)

AICC standards apply to the development, delivery, and evaluation of training courses that are delivered via technology, i.e., more often than not, through learning management systems. AICC stands for the Aviation Industry CBT [Computer-Based Training] Committee (AICC), which is an international association of technology-based training professionals that develops training guidelines for the aviation industry.

Reference: http://www.syberworks.com/articles/SCORM.htm

What is a Learning Object and the characteristics?

Define what is a learning object and what are the characteristics of a learning object?

A learning object is a type of knowledge object. Objects, by definition, are self-contained and reusable.
One of the characteristic is re-useable. To be re-usable, its content and presentation are separated. Learning objects are types of knowledge objects in the sense that their goal is to provide knowledge in support of an associated learning objective.
Commonly, learning objects’ presentations include a variety of media, that is, they are multimedia
in format, but this is not a requirement. Likewise, commonly their content is organized
around standards such as Sharable Content Object Reference Model (SCORM -http://www.adlnet.org) or IEEE Learning Object Metadata (IEEE LOM - http://ltsc.ieee.org) to create metadata about the contents of the learning object resource. SCORM and IEEE LOM are standards that aid reusability, interoperability, and accessibility of learning objects.
Learning objects are not necessarily strange, novel, and futuristic entities. In the minimum, learning objects can be created by capturing (to video) and indexing individual lectures with associated presentation materials. This collection, storage and reuse enable the lecturer to turn the event of giving a lecture into more than a single performance to a single set of students.

Reference:
http://www.google.com.sg/search?hl=en&q=what+are+learning+objects+in+e+learning&meta=&aq=f&oq=

Learning Object Characteristics

There are many characteristics of learning objects, the common ones are: accessibility, interoperability, adaptability, reusability, durability, and granularity.

Examples of Learning Objects:

Depending on the learning object definition you prefer, there are many formats that a learning object might take. Some of the more common examples include a Web page or Web site, a digital movie or audio track, an animation, a java applet, a lesson, a module, a course, an assessment, an activity, and an image.

http://careo.prn.bc.ca/losc/mod2t1.html

Accessibility of a learning object is an important characteristic because the instructional components are often accessed from one remote location and delivered to many other locations (Content Management Systems - CMS) in the distributed learning environment.

Interoperability use instructional components developed in one location, with one set of tools or platform, in another location, with a different set of tools or platform. While transferring the learning objects from one CMS to another, the integrity of the object must be well preserved. Therefore, using an interoperable model while constructing a learning object is an important factor to consider. Metadata and learning object standards enhance the interoperability of learning objects.

Adaptability ensures the learning object is tailored perfectly for the individual and situational needs.

Reusability is obviously the most important characteristic. A well designed learning object should allow users to incorporate it into multiple applications without much additional effort. Storing, searching, and retrieving learning resources have always been a challenge in the traditional teaching and learning media. Learning object repositories provide solutions to the problems in distributing and reuse the knowledge sources. Learning objectdesigners should only make reusable instructional components which can be distributed in to the learning object repositories in order to share and reuse the object in the future.

Durability operate instructional components when base technology changes, without redesign or re-coding. Both educators and learners are well aware of the acceleration of technology changes and create a learning object that allow easy updates and re-publication would make extend the durability of the learning object.

Granularity refers to how rigorously we choose to break down and store our learning objects. The unit of a learning object can be a program, a course a module, a lesson, a segment, or a raw object. Generally a finer level of granularity will promote reusability, by allowing for use in multiple contexts. Of course, a greater number of smaller objects requires more cataloguing and therefore increases.

Reference: http://www.loaz.com/learning-objects/learning-object-characteristics.html

Kirkpatrick Model-Disadvantages

Level 1: Reaction

Reaction evaluation is how the delegates felt, and their personal reactions to the training or learning experience, for example:
· Did the trainees like and enjoy the training?
· Did they consider the training relevant?
· Was it a good use of their time?
· Did they like the venue, the style, timing, domestics, etc?
· Level of participation.
· Ease and comfort of experience.
· Level of effort required to make the most of the learning.
· Perceived practicability and potential for applying the learning.

Here are some examples of evaluation tools and methods:

· Typically 'happy sheets'.
· Feedback forms based on subjective personal reaction to the training experience.
· Verbal reaction which can be noted and analysed.
· Post-training surveys or questionnaires.
· Online evaluation or grading by delegates.
· Subsequent verbal or written reports given by delegates to managers back at their jobs.

All these can be done immediately after the training ends as it is very easy to obtain reaction feedback. Feedback is not expensive to gather or to analyse for groups. It is important to know that people were not upset or disappointed and to giving a positive impression when relating their experience to others who might be deciding whether to experience the same.

Level 2: Learning

Learning evaluation is the measurement of the increase in knowledge or intellectual capability from before to after the learning experience. For example:
· Did the trainees learn what was intended to be taught?
· Did the trainee experience what was intended for them to experience?
· What is the extent of advancement or change in the trainees after the training, in the direction or area that was intended?

Typically assessments or tests can be done before and after the training. It is relatively simple to set up, but more investment and thought required than reaction evaluation. It is highly relevant and clear-cut for certain training such as quantifiable or technical skills but is less easy for more complex learning such as attitudinal development, which is famously difficult to assess. The methods of assessment need to be closely related to the aims of the learning. Measurement and analysis is possible and easy on a group scale. Reliable, clear scoring and measurements need to be established, so as to limit the risk of inconsistent assessment. Cost escalates if systems are poorly designed, which increases work required to measure and analyse.

Here are some examples of evaluation tools and methods:

· Interview or observation can be used before and after the training.
· Hard-copy, electronic, online or interview style assessments are all possible.

Level 3: Behaviour

Behaviour evaluation is the extent to which the trainees applied the learning and changed their behaviour, and this can be immediately and several months after the training, depending on the situation:
· Did the trainees put their learning into effect when back on the job?
· Were the relevant skills and knowledge used
· Was there noticeable and measurable change in the activity and performance of the trainees when back in their roles?
· Was the change in behaviour and new level of knowledge sustained?
· Would the trainee be able to transfer their learning to another person?
· Is the trainee aware of their change in behaviour, knowledge, skill level?

Observation and interview over time are required to assess change, relevance of change, and sustainability of change. Measurement of behaviour change typically requires cooperation and skill of line-managers.

Level 4: Results

Results evaluation is the effect on the business or environment resulting from the improved performance of the trainee - it is the acid test.
Measures would typically be business or organisational key performance indicators, such as:
Volumes, values, percentages, timescales, return on investment, and other quantifiable aspects of organisational performance, for instance; numbers of complaints, staff turnover, attrition, failures, wastage, non-compliance, quality ratings, achievement of standards and accreditations, growth, retention, etc.


References:
http://www.businessballs.com/kirkpatricklearningevaluationmodel.htm


Disadvantages

Level 1: Reaction
Only reflects a quick reading of the participant while they are still in the class. Results should not be used as a solid basis for changing the educational content or strategy

Level 2: Learning
Requires more time and money than level 1. Also requires greater insight to the evaluation process to develop valid measures of learning.

Level 3: Behaviour
Requires significantly more investment of time and money. Requires in-depth insight into performance interventions and root causes of performance deficiencies.

Level 4: Results
Substantial levels of investment and expertise are required to develop level 4. Often hard to decide whether or not this level is required. Linkage from training to org'1 results is hard to establish.

Reference:
http://www.internationalmta.org/1998/9821.html

ADDIE Model-Design

DESIGN PHASE
The Design phase is the systematic process of research, planning, identifying and specifying the complete design of the course objectives, lesson planning, topic content, training methodology, media, learner exercises, courseware content, and assessment criteria. It involves using the outputs from the Analyze phase to plan a strategy for developing the instructions. Typically detailed prototypes are developed at this time, and the look, feel, graphic design and content are determined.

The steps involved in Design phase:
1.Document the project's instructional, visual and technical design strategy
2. Apply instructional strategies according to the intended behavioral outcomes by domain (cognitive, affective, and psychomotor).
3. Design the user interface and user experience
4. Create prototype
5. Apply visual design (graphic design)

At this phase, it is important to include whoever is responsible for which elements, time schedules, and deadlines. All audio, video, and courseware materials are collected, prepared, created and ready to be tested.

Below are some of the questions that can guide us in the Design phase:

· What are your objectives?
· What skills, knowledge and attitudes are you trying to do?
· How should the content be organized?
· How should ideas be presented to learners?
· What resources and strategies will you use in your instruction,
· What delivery format should be used?
· What types of activities and exercises will best help learners?
· How should the course measure learners’ accomplishments?


Five Steps in the Design phase:
1. Continue with subject matter analysis
2. Apply instructional strategies according to the content type
3. Create storyboards
4. Design the user interface
5. Collect needed materials

Reference: 2001, http://www.hsl.unc.edu/mla/systems.htm

1. Determine the sequence in which the objective will be met.
2. Come up with a solution for each objective identified during the analysis phase.
3. Transfer the objectives, solutions and descriptions of activities to the storyboards.

Reference: Hannafin and Peck (1988, p. 61)

Here are some points that should be taken into account:

· The most appropriate media is selected by examining the kinds of skills required to achieve your goal.
· The learning objectives are written and the modules are designed with its corresponding lessons.
· Course content is designed specifically for use with an interactive, electronic medium in the case of online learning.
· Determine the appropriate interactions. They should be creative, innovative, and encourage learners to explore further.
· Plan activities that allow for student group work to help construct a supportive social environment.

Reference: http://www.outsource2india.com/LearningSolutions/articles/ADDIE.asp

References:
http://www.articlesbase.com/training-articles/the-addie-model-why-use-it-305218.html
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ADDIE_Model
http://www.intulogy.com/addie/design.html
http://ed.isu.edu/addie/design/design.html

ADDIE Model

ADDIE MODEL

The ADDIE instructional design model provides a step-by-step process that helps training specialists plan and create training programs. The ADDIE design model revolves around the following five components:

1. Analysis
2. Design
3. Development
4. Implementation
5. Evaluation

ANALYSIS PHASE

In the Analysis phase, it is to define and develop as clear as possible of an understanding of the audience’s needs and constraints. The instructional problem is clarified, the instructional goals and objectives are established, the learning environment and learner's existing knowledge and skills are identified. It also considers the timeline for the project as well.

What are the steps required in the Analysis phase?

1. Collect the information
2. Analyze the resources
3. Confirm the research

Below are some of the questions that are addressed during the analysis phase:

1. Who is the target audience?
2. What are the audiences’ characteristics?
3. What is the minimum/maximum current knowledge of the participant audience?
4. What are their special needs?
5. What are the business needs driving this training project?
6. What are the goals and objectives for this training project?
7. What knowledge and skill deficiencies currently exist?
8. What types of learning constraints exist?
9. What are the tasks currently performed by the target audience and what new skill level is required following the training?
10. What resources are readily available?
11. What are the available delivery options and methods for transferring the new skills to the workplace? E.g. Visualizer, Overhead Projector
12. What is the instructional setting; E.g. classroom, on-the-job, self study, etc?
13. How do these skills connect to the intended audience?
14. What are the program constraints? Technological, timing and duration.
15. What is the new behavioral outcome?
16. What are the online pedagogical considerations? E.g. Verbal,visual,tactile,auditory
17. What are the Adult Learning Theory considerations?
18. What is the timeline for project completion?
19. What is going to cost to provide the training?
20. Create performance measures for the tasks to be trained.


References:

http://www.articlesbase.com/training-articles/the-addie-model-why-use-it-305218.html
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ADDIE_Model
http://www.intulogy.com/addie/learner-analysis.html